If we want more evidence-based practice, we need more practice-based evidence.*
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If we want more evidence-based practice, we need more practice-based evidence.*
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If we want more evidence-based practice, we need more practice-based evidence.*
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Home Endnotes and Links: Preface Chap 1 Chap 2 Chap 3 Chap 4 Chap 5 Chap 6 Chap 7 Chap 8 Chap 9
New Features, Flow, and Updated References in 4th Edition, 2005
New Title: Health Program Planning: An Educational and Ecological Approach
New Publisher: McGraw-Hill. Publication date: Aug. 1, 2005.
Table of Contents*
Some Contraction to Compensate for the Expansion
Chapter 1 new references, links and endnotes The Precede-Proceed Model*
Chapter 2 new links and endnotes: Phase I--Social Diagnosis and Participatory Planning
Chapter 3 new links and endnotes: Phase II--Epidemiological Diagnosis: Health, Behavioral, & Environmental Assessment
Chapter 4 new links and endnotes: Phase III--Ecological and Educational Diagnosis
Chapter 5 new links and endnotes: Phase IV--Administrative, Organizational, and Policy Diagnosis
Chapter 6 new links and endnotes: Applications in Community Settings
Chapter 7 new links and endnotes: Applications in Occupational Settings
Chapter 8 new links and endnotes: Applications in School Settings
Chapter 9 new links and endnotes: Applications in Health Care Settings
*See detailed Table of Contents of the nine chapters below
Introduction to this Web Version of Endnotes
The new, 4th edition of this book will expand the presentation and application of the Precede-Proceed Model beyond health education and health promotion planning to the wider range of population health program applications of planning and evaluation. We believe this edition will be particularly valuable to the newly emerging generic MPH degree and Doctor of Public Health programs in Schools of Public Health, and community health graduate programs in other schools. It should serve also as a handbook for practitioners and scholars. In the following website notes and those in each of the subsequent chapters, we will document the major changes taking shape in this new edition by way of updating the endnotes with new citations (published since the previous edition went to press in 1998, shown as indented references) and with explanations for our changes in the model and its presentation in the 4th edition. Other references cited in the new edition but not included here are found in the bibliography of the 3rd edition. These are retained because of the more enduring, even classic, character in the literature on health program planning, disease prevention, health promotion, and population health.
To make this website truly complementary and of added value to the print version of the book, we provide here the full citation of references cited in the endnotes and link many of them to their online abstract or full text. This inclusion of the full references with the endnote will make the lookup process more efficient for readers, who can read the chapters without having to flip pages to the Endnotes and again to the references. The added value of the website will be the linking of many of the references cited in the endnotes and bibliography to the Medline abstract, our own abstract and notes, or other sources of their abstracts or full-text online version of the article, book (e.g., publisher's website catalogue page with table of contents, reviews, etc.), report, chapter, website, or manuscript file. This feature will be of particular value to scholars and other readers who want to go deeper on a given topic and will save them having to type in the URL or each link they wish to pursue.
As a footnote at the beginning of each chapter of the book, the reader will be pointed to the part of the www.lgreeen.net URL that links to the endnote pages for that chapter. E.g., for Chapter 1, this will be "...hpp/endnotes/chapter1Endnotes.html". Thus the user would go to our website (www.lgreen.net) and enter this suffix to the home page, or type the full following URL: www.lgreen.net/hpp/endnotes/Chapter1Endnotes.html. The user will become familiar soon with the web pages and navigating among them.
Some major new features of the fourth edition of the book are:
1. A significantly streamlined Precede-Proceed Model and text, with the merging of the Epidemiological Assessment and the Behavioral and Environmental Assessment Phases (plus genetics) into one phase and one chapter rather than two. This overcomes the confusion that what previous editions had as Chapter 4, the Behavioral and Epidemiological Assessment, was in fact epidemiological diagnosis extended from the descriptive epidemiology of Chapter 3 to etiological epidemiology of the determinants of health. Chapter 1 also introduces a flow diagram or algorithm to enable users of the Model to find a more efficient starting point, depending on what previous work and understanding has gone before their application of the Model.
2. A giant step toward making the book work more seamlessly with this highly resource-based website, in which the authors provide links to the rest of the World Wide Web, streamlined internal links to bibliographies of published applications of the Model, updated headlines, milestones and benchmarks, PowerPoint slides with animated (build features) in some of the more complex graphs and charts that appear in the book, and links to related material in several other books published by the authors and by McGraw-Hill. Finally, we have linked both conceptually and via the World Wide Web to other planning models and tools that have become more detailed spin-offs of specific phases from PRECEDE-PROCEED, or that have developed tools and procedures that link to phases in PRECEDE-PROCEED.
3. We have integrated some of our phases with those of PATCH, APEX-PH, and MAPP, all sponsored by CDC and growing out of an original formulation of PATCH on the Precede-Proceed Model. We have also sought to integrate PRECEDE-PROCEED with MATCH, D'Onofrio's Pooling of Prior Intervention Information, Bartholomew et al's Intervention Mapping, and Sussman's Six-Step Program Development Chain Model.
4. The integration of evaluation considerations into each phase, rather than leaving that subject to a later chapter presenting evaluation as though it were only a final phase. Formative evaluation, and the establishment of goals and objectives and baseline measures during the earlier assessment or diagnostic phases are now discussed in earlier chapters as part of the evaluation process.
5. The integration of technological tools into the application chapters, rather than leaving these considerations to a final chapter on technological applications of the Precede-Proceed model. This particularly addresses the opportunity presented by the explosion of new research and development to fill the gap between the assessment phases and the evaluation phases with more specific guidelines to the selection of interventions to match the population needs and contextual circumstances, using theory and previous research and evaluation compilations to guide the intervention mapping process. It will also help planners as they tackle health issues that are embedded in ecological complexities.
6. The widening of the intended audience for this edition beyond health education students and professionals to include all health professionals and health science students who would apply educational and ecological principles to their planning of health programs (not just health education programs). As the scientific literature of health education and the behavioral and social sciences applied to health promotion has matured, and the scope of health promotion has broadened to encompass most public health, community health, and population health applications, the Precede-Proceed Model has been used increasingly outside health education by professionals other than health educators, making health education more central rather than peripheral to health planning, and infusing more educational and ecological thinking and methods into health programs of all types.
Chapter 1: A Framework for Planning
KEY CONCEPTS
A "population health" program
The ecological and educational approach
Respecting context and people in the adaptation of "best practices"
THE PRECEDE-PROCEED MODEL
What are the phases of the Precede-Proceed approach to population health planning?
How does the Precede-Proceed Model work?
Phase 1: Social Assessment and Situational Analysis
Phase 2: Epidemiological Assessment
Phase 3: Educational and Ecological Assessment
Phases 4, 5, 6: Intervention Alignment, Administrative and Policy Assessment, and Evaluation
HALLMARKS
Flexibility
Evidence-based and Evaluable Participation
A platform for Evidence-Based "Best Practice"
EXERCISES
NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chapter 2: Social Assessment, Participatory Planning, and Situation Analysis
SOCIAL DIAGNOSIS AND PARTICIPATION: THE RATIONALE
Social and Health Conditions: A Reciprocal Relationship
Health as an Instrumental Rather Than Terminal Value
QUALITY OF LIFE: AN EXPRESSION OF ULTIMATE VALUES
ELICITING SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENTS OF COMMUNITY QUALITY OF LIFE
Measuring Quality Of Life
Relevance of an Ecological and Environmental Approach
THE PRINCIPLE AND PROCESS OF PARTICIPATION
Forms of Participation
Participation in Setting Priorities
Public Perception and Professional Diagnosis: Common Ground
THE CAPACITY-BUILDING AND SUSTAINABILITY CASE FOR PARTICIPATION
Examining the Steps of Assessment
Two Functional Levels
Technical Support
Tasks Common Across Precede Phases
Official Functions
Implementation and Evaluation
The Capacity-Building, Self-Reliance, and Sustainability Cycle
Evaluation, Demonstration and Diffusion
Keeping Perspective on Participation and Partnership
METHODS AND STRATEGIES FOR SOCIAL DIAGNOSIS AND SITUATION ANALYSIS
Assessing Urgency and Assets: Situation Analysis
Assessing Capacity: Community Competence and Readiness
Effects of Social Capital on Community Health
Asset Mapping
The Social Reconnaissance Method for Community Social Diagnosis
Application at the State Level
Application at the Community Level
Other Assessment Methods
Nominal Group Process
The Delphi Method
Focus Groups
Central Location Intercept Interviews
Surveys
Public Service Data
USING DATA FROM A SOCIAL ASSESSMENT AND SITUATION ANALYSIS TO MAP THE PLANNING PROCESS
Social Diagnosis and Situation Analysis “After the Fact”
Situation Analysis: Cutting To the Chase, Leaping Past the Obvious
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chapter 3: Epidemiological Diagnosis, Health, Behavioral and Environmental Assessments
Where’s the Evidence?
Organization of the Chapter
STARTING IN THE MIDDLE: A REALITY FOR PRACTITIONERS
Three Reasons Why Planners Should Know the Whole Model
Reason 1
Reason 2
Reason 3
Maintaining a Reciprocal Balance
KEY PRINCIPLES AND TERMS OF DESCRIPTIVE EPIDEMIOLOGY
Epidemiology: A Definition
What is the Problem?
Rates
Specific and Adjusted Rates
Incidence and Prevalence
Prevalence
Prevalence of Chronic Disease Rates: A Caveat
Surveillance
Making Comparisons to Gain Insight
Obtaining Data to Make Comparisons
SETTING PRIORITIES AND OBJECTIVES FOR HEALTH PROGRAMS
Key Questions
Developing Health Objectives
ETIOLOGY: WHY DO THOSE WITH THE PROBLEM HAVE IT?
Risk Factors: Finding Relevance for Planning
Risk Factor Surveillance
Population-Attributable Risk
Cost-benefit Analysis from PAR
Data: Follow the Signs
Ecological Correlations
Advantages
Disadvantages
An Example: Coal Miners in Appalachia
“Protective” Factors
SECTION 5 - BEHAVIORAL DIAGNOSIS
Three Levels or Categories of Behavior
Genetics and Behavioral Interactions
Step 1: Listing Potential Behavioral Risks for the Health Problem
Keep an eye on the literature
Systems thinking
Case example: Roseville
Step 2: Rating Behaviors on Importance
Continuing the Roseville Case
Step 3: Rating Behaviors on Changeability
Step 4: Choosing Behavioral Targets
Step 5 Stating Behavioral Objectives
ENVIRONMENTAL DIAGNOSIS
Step 1: Identifying Environmental Factors
Step 2: Rating Environmental Factors on Relative Importance
Step 3: Rating Environmental Factors on Changeability
Step 4: Choosing the Environmental Targets
Step 5: Stating Environmental Objectives
EVALUATION SUMMARY
Definition
Objects (and Order) of Interest
Standards of Acceptability
Being an “Accountable Practitioner”
Outcome Evaluation
Impact Evaluation
Process evaluation
EXERCISES
NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chapter 4: Ecological and Educational Diagnosis
FACTORS INFLUENCING BEHAVIOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT
The Theory Underlying This Part of the Model
The Practical Uses of This Component of the Model
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
Capacity-Building Cycle of Predisposing and Enabling Factors
Awareness and Knowledge
Beliefs, Values, and Attitudes
Beliefs
Fear
Values
Attitudes
Self-Efficacy and Social Cognitive Theory
Behavioral Intention
Precontemplation to Contemplation and Preparation
Existing Skills
ENABLING FACTORS
The Health Care Environment
Other Environmental Conditions That Affect Health-Related Behavior
New Skills
Reinforcing Factors
SELECTING DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
Step 1: Identifying and Sorting
Informal Methods
Formal Methods
Step 2: Setting Priorities among Categories
Step 3: Establishing Priorities within Categories
Importance
Changeability
LEARNING AND RESOURCE OBJECTIVES
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chapter 5: Program, Administrative and Policy Design: Turning the Corner from Formative to Process Evaluation, From Precede To Proceed
SOME DEFINITIONS
ALIGNING PRIORITY DETERMINANTS WITH PROGRAM COMPONENTS
Alignment 1: Intervention Matching, Mapping, Pooling and Patching
Mapping Causal Theory, Action Theory and Program Theory
Pooling and Patching Prior and Existing Interventions
Alignment 2: Formative Evaluation and Blending Interventions into Comprehensive Programs
“Best processes”
Innovate and Evaluate
What is an Innovation?
A Summary of the Developmental Process Steps to a Comprehensive Program
Fidelity to “Best Practices” Vs. Adaptation to Population and Circumstances
Alignment 3: From Formative Evaluation to Process Evaluation: Pretesting Components of Program for Feasibility, Acceptability and Fit
THE ADMINISTRATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PROCESS EVALUATION
Step 1: Assessment of Resources Needed
Time
Personnel
Budget
Attention to Detail
Step 2: Assessment, Enhancement, and Process Evaluation of Available Resources
Personnel
Other Budgetary Constraints
Step 3: Assessment, Modification, and Process Evaluation of Factors Influencing Implementation
Staff Commitment, Values, and Attitudes
Program Goal(s)
Familiarity
Complexity
Space
Community Circumstances
Quality Assurance, Training, and Supervision
POLICY ASSESSMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY
Step 1: Assessment of the Organizational Mission, Policies, and Regulations
Being Informed
Anticipating
Flexibility
STEP 2: ASSESSING POLITICAL FORCES
Level of Analysis
The Zero-Sum Game
Systems Approach
Exchange Theory
Power Equalization Approach
Power-Educative Approach
Conflict Approach
Advocacy and Educating the Electorate
Empowerment Education and Community Development
Participatory Research and Community Capacity Approaches
IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION: ASSURING REACH, COVERAGE, QUALITY, IMPACT, AND OUTCOMES
ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING THE INPUTS AND OUTPUTS OF YOUR PROGRAM
Practical Realities
Population Concerns
Need
Reach
Coverage
Impact
Efficacy
Effectiveness
Economic Measures
Program Cost
Efficiency
Cost-Effectiveness
Benefits
Income
Net Gain
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chapter 6: Applications in Communities
COMMUNITY: A MEDIUM FOR CHANGE AND A CHANGING MEDIUM
Defining Community
Community Interventions and Interventions in Communities
The Epidemiological Case for the Community Approach
The Social-Psychological Case for the Community Approach
The Economic Case for the Community Approach
The Political Case for the Community Approach
The Demonstration and “Multiplier” Value of Smaller Programs
Community Participation
The Dilemma of Complex Problems and Multiple Stakeholders
Tackling Complex Community Problems
The Dilemma of External Funding
Two Points of View
COALITIONS: COMPELLING, IMPORTANT, BUT NOT EASY AND NOT A PANACEA
The capacities of communities to support health programs
The Politics of Coalitions and Community Power
Coalitions: Some Basic Principles
Basic Steps to Keep in Mind
Creating an Organizational Framework
APPLICATIONS IN COMMUNITIES
A Kentucky Case Study
Results
Strategy: Multiple Tactics
Implications for Practitioners
Implementation Lesson
The North Karelia Project
The Design
The Impact
Diffusion
Penetrate the Community
Never Promise Too Much Too Soon
Selecting Multiple Strategies
Intervention Matrix
Intervention Mapping
Reaching the Masses
Segmenting
A Su Salud
Social Marketing: Square One for a Campaign
Take It Outside
Examples from Developing Countries
So Much to Know and Do, So Little Time!
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chapter 7: Applications in Occupational Settings
THE ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF WORKPLACE HEALTH PROGRAMS
Historical Context of Health Programs in the Workplace
Demographic Context
Regulatory Context: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation
Legislative Initiatives
The Problem of Coordination
Problems Requiring Regulatory Intervention
Environmental Protections versus Health Promotion
Protection of Women
Educational Protections
Medical Surveillance and Risk Assessment
Psychosocial Factors
Recent Trends
Current Limitations
Economic Context
Containing Health Care Costs
Econometric Evaluation
Tobacco Control
Stress Management, Nutrition and Physical Activity
Hypertension
Comprehensive Programs
Limitations of Evaluation
Employee Dependents
Substance Abuse Context: Employee Assistance Programs
The U.S. Organizational Context
The Canadian Organizational Context
The Diffusion of EAPs
From Medical Model to Constructive Confrontation
From Treatment to Secondary Prevention
Converging Interests of EAPs and Health Promotion
The Blending Of the Four Work-Site Health Ecologies
Prevention versus Health Promotion
Health Risk Appraisals
Work Organization, Control, and Health
Organizational Culture
CAVEATS
Ethical Concerns
The “Victim-Blaming” vs. Paternalism Problems
The Divided Loyalties Problem
Caution: Do Not “Over-Sell” Economic Benefits
APPLICATION OF PRECEDE-PROCEED
Phase 1: Social Diagnosis and Participation
From the Perspective of Employers
From the Perspective of Employees
Phase 2: Epidemiological Assessment
Phase 3: Educational and Ecological Assessment
Predisposing Factors
Reinforcing Factors
Enabling Factors
Phase 4: Administrative, Organizational and Policy Assessment
Phase 6: Implementation and Evaluation
Screening and Wait-Listing
Self-Care and Community Referrals
Triage and Stepped Program of Interventions
A CASE STUDY: AIR QUALITY CONTROL IN A STATE AGENCY
Social and Epidemiological Assessments
Educational and Ecological Assessment
The Environment
Behavior/Lifestyle
From Administrative and Policy Assessment to Implementation
Implementation and Structural Evaluation
Process Evaluation
Impact Evaluation
Outcome Evaluation
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chapter 8: Applications in Educational Settings
WHAT IS A SCHOOL HEALTH PROGRAM?
Key Concept: “Coordinated”
PROGRESS IN SCHOOL HEALTH RESEARCH AND POLICY
Assessing the Effects of School Health Education
The National Institutes of Health
The Challenge of Parental Participation
Policy Analysis and Advances
Policy Surveys
Policy Analysis
Comprehensive School Health Education: A Response to the Aids Epidemic
USING PRECEDE AND PROCEED FOR PLANNING IN SCHOOLS
Social Assessment
Health: An Instrumental Value for Schools
Education and Health: A Two-Way Relationship
Developmental Assets
Epidemiological Assessment
Using Multiple Approaches
Health Problems and Health Behaviors
Emphasize Flexibility
The School Health Index: A Practical Example of Epidemiologic Assessment
Behavioral, Environmental, and Educational Assessment
What Is the Goal?
Skills: A Legitimate Focus
Using Theory
PRECEDE-PROCEED AND SCHOOLS: A HYPOTHETICAL CASE
Where Are We?
What Matters?
Sorting Out the Complexity
Can The Literature And Other “Outside Sources Help Us?
Time and Resources
“Within Reason”
Public Opinion
Using Policy
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chapter 9: Applications in Health Care Settings
DISEASE PREVENTION, HEALTH PROMOTION, AND SELF-CARE AS PRIORITIES OF CLINICAL CARE
Definitions
The Opportunity
Clinical Credibility
Access to Teachable Moments
Public Interest
Readiness of Clinical Practitioners
The Missed Opportunity
The Rationale
AN ECOLOLOGICAL AND COMMUNITY APPROACH TO HEALTH CARE
Epidemiology of Health Care Errors
Health-Care Errors of Omission
The Undiagnosed
Nonusers
Health-Care Errors of Commission
Professional Errors
Patient Errors
Special Groups
PATIENT CONSIDERATIONS IN TARGETING INTERVENTIONS
The Undiagnosed
Diagnosed Nonusers Who Received Inappropriate Medical Recommendations
Nonusers Who Did Not Obtain a Recommended Drug or Device
Policy Changes
Misusers
Allocation Decisions
APPLICATION OF EDUCATIONAL AND ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT TO INDIVIDUAL PATIENTS
A HIERARCHY OF FACTORS AFFECTING SELF-CARE BEHAVIOR
Triage According To Motivation
Triage According To Enabling Factors
Assessing Reinforcing Factors Necessary for Patients’ Adherence
Balancing the Three Sets of Determinants
Making Reinforcement Intrinsic Rather than Extrinsic
Self-Monitoring
CHANGING THE BEHAVIOR OF HEALTH CARE STAFF
EDUCATIONAL AND EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF PRACTITIONERS’ BEHAVIOR
Predisposing Factors
Enabling Factors
Reinforcing Factors
Managed Care
Complications and Barriers
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
NOTES AND CITATIONS
Glossary
Bibliography
Go to Endnotes: Preface Chap 1 Chap 2 Chap 3 Chap 4 Chap 5 Chap 6 Chap 7 Chap 8 Chap 9
