   Home Endnotes: Preface
Chap 1
Chap 2
Chap 3 Chap 4
Chap 6 Chap 7
Chap 8 Chap 9
Health Program Planning, 4th edition
Chapter 5 (formerly Chap. 6 in
previous editions) [New sections highlighted in yellow]
Program, Administrative and Policy Assessment
and Evaluation: Turning the
Corner from PRECEDE to PROCEED
Table of Contents (Click on the section to go to the
new endnotes for that section)
Some Definitions
Some Principles of Best Practices
and Best Processes
Aligning
Priority Determinants with
Program Components
Alignment 1:
Intervention Matching, Mapping, Pooling and Patching
Matching Ecological Levels of Outcomes and
Mediators with Program Components
Mapping Causal Theory, Action
Theory, and Program Theory
Pooling and Patching Prior and Existing Interventions
Alignment 2: Formative Evaluation and Blending Interventions into Comprehensive
Programs
"Best practices"
"Best experiences"
"Best processes"
Innovate and Evaluate
What is an Innovation?
A Summary of the Developmental Process Steps to a Comprehensive Program
Fidelity to "Best Practices" Vs Adaptation to Population and Circumstances
Alignment 3:
From Formative Evaluation to Process Evaluation: Pretesting Components of Program for Feasibility, Acceptability and Fit
The Administrative Assessment and
Process Evaluation
Step 1: Assessment of Resources Needed
Step 2: Assessment,
Enhancement, & Process Evaluation of Available Resources
Step 3: Assessment,
Modification, and Process Evaluation of Factors Influencing
Implementation
Policy Assessment and
Accountability
Step 1: Assessment of the Organizational Mission,
Policies, and Regulations
Step 2: Assessing Political Forces
Implementation and Evaluation: Assuring
Reach, Coverage, Quality,
Impact, and Outcomes
Endnotes* (Besides the table of contents above, you can
search this page for references by topic or by key words, theories, models,
authors, journals, dates, etc. using the "Find" command in the Edit menu)
*Many of the articles cited below are hyperlinked to
their abstracts or full text online. If the hyperlink does not take you directly
to the abstract, you might need to copy the hyperlink to your browser "Go to"
line, or the citation to a word processing
document to be able to click on the title and get to the linked abstract or
document. Articles or book references with a lead asterisk are applications,
evaluations, or descriptions of PRECEDE-PROCEED.
Endnote numbers refer to 4th edition, unless followed by >, in
which case the first number refers to the third edition, and the number after
the > refers to the new endnote number in the forthcoming 4th edition.
Some Definitions
>1. Best practices vs. best
processes. Green, 2001. E.g.,
Kaplan et al., 2000, demonstrate how methods previously shown in more controlled
efficacy trials of getting women to return for follow-up when they have a
positive pap smear are highly variable in their effectiveness across settings
and subpopulations in which they are applied in a broader community trial. This
illustrates the importance of adapting the "best practice" methods with "best
processes" of diagnosing predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors when
they are applied in settings, populations, or circumstances not well represented
in the controlled studies from which they were derived.
Green, L.W. (2001). From research to “best practices” in other settings and
populations (American Academy of Health Behavior Research Laureate address).
American Journal of Health Behavior, 25, 165-78. Full text
online at http://www.ajhb.org/25-3.htm.
Kaplan, C. P., Bastani, R., Belin, T. R., Marcus, A., Nasseri, K., Hu, M.Y. (2000). Improving
follow-up after an abnormal pap smear: Results from a quasi-experimental
intervention study. Journal of Women's Health & Gender Based Medicine, 9,
779-90.
>2. Ecological matching: Multilevel Approach to Community Health
(MATCH). Developed by Simons-Morton, et al.,
1988; described most thoroughly in Simons-Morton, Greene, & Gottlieb, 1995, pp.
152-84. See also Butler, 2001, pp. 279-83.
Butler, J. T. (2001).
Principles of health
education and health promotion.
3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson
Learning.
Simons-Morton DG, Simons-Morton BG, Parcel GS, Bunker JF. (1988). Influencing
personal and environmental conditions for community health: a multilevel
intervention model. Family & Community Health, 11, 25-35.
Simons-Morton, B. G., Greene, W. H., & Gottlieb, N. H. (1995).
Introduction to health education and health promotion. 2nd ed. Prospect
Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.
Figure 5-2. Multilevel Approach to Community Health (MATCH).
This simplified rendition of Simon-Morton et al's model shows steps in aligning
interventions with levels of an ecological system and the objectives associated
with each. Source: Adapted from Simons-Morton, Greene, & Gottlieb, 1995, p. 154.
>3. The renaissance of ecological approaches in public health, community
and population health. Best, Stokols, et al., 2004; Green, Poland, &
Rootman, 2000, esp. pp. 10-2;
Kickbusch, 1989;
McLeroy, Bibeau, Steckler, & Glanz, 1988;
Stokols, Allen, & Bellingham, 1996; Stokols, Grzywacz, J. G., et al.,
2003.
*Best, A., Stokols, D., Green, L. W., et al. (2003). An integrative framework
for community partnering to translate theory into effective health promotion
strategy. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18, 168-76.
Green, L. W., Poland, B. D., & Rootman, I. (2000).
The settings approach to health promotion. In
Poland,
B. D., Green, L.W., & Rootman, I. (Eds.). Settings in health promotion:
Linking theory and practice (pp. 1-43). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Institute of Medicine (2002). The Future of Public Health in the 21st
Century. Washington, DC: The National Academy Press.
Full-text online.
Institute of
Medicine (2003). Who will keep the public healthy? Educating public health
professionals for the 21st century. Washington, DC: The National Academy
Press. Full-text online.
Kickbusch, I. (1989). Approaches to an ecological base for public health.
Health Promotion, 4, 265-8.
McLeroy, K. R.,
Bibeau,
D.,
Steckler, A., & Glanz,
K.
(1988). An ecological perspective on health promotion programs. Health Education Quarterly, 15, 351-77.
Stokols, D., Allen, J., Bellingham, R. L. (1996). The social
ecology of health promotion: Implications for research and practice.
American Journal of Health Promotion, 10, 247-51.
Stokols, D., Grzywacz, J. G., McMahan, S., Phillips, K. (2003). Increasing the health promotive capacity of human environments. American
Journal of Health Promotion, 18, 4-13.
>4. The use of city and statewide averages and trends to estimate
health goals. For your data, go to this endnote in
http://www.lgreen.net/hpp/Endnotes/Chapter5Endnotes.htm for the addresses of
websites containing continuously updated statistics, for example, on data from
(1) the CDC 122 Cities Mortality Reporting System as printed in Table III
of the MMWR each week; (2) state cancer profiles with 25-year
trends, and more detailed 5-year trends on mortality and incidence rates, for
each of eleven cancer sites, by age, sex, and race or ethnic group, and for all
50 states and the District of Columbia; and prevalence estimates (3) fatal
injury reports, by year, type of injury, cause of injury, by age,
race/ethnic group, sex, and age; and years of life lost from injuries; (4)
asthma, by state since 1999, adult reported lifetime and current rates; (5)
HIV/AIDS statistics, state and international, by exposure categories,
age, race and ethnicity; (6) oral health indicators; (7) nutritional indicators;
(8) alcohol-related health indicators; and others. Most states health
department websites also carry within-state breakdowns of health data by age,
sex, and county, region, and/or major cities.
Mortality for 121 cities at
http://wonder.cdc.gov/mmwr/mmwrmort.asp, by age.
Cancer profiles:
http://statecancerprofiles.cancer.gov/cgi-bin/quickprofiles/profile.pl?00&047.
Cancer prevalence estimates:
http://srab.cancer.gov/prevalence/statistics.html or
http://seer.cancer.gov/query/.
Injury mortality reports:
http://webapp.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/mortrate.html, and years of potential
life lost data for fatal injuries:
http://webapp.cdc.gov/sasweb/dionne/ncipc/ypll.html.
Asthma, adult lifetime and current prevalence,
http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/airpollution/asthma/brfss/default.htm.
HIV/AIDS state and international,
http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/hasrlink.htm.
Oral health indicators:
http://www.cdc.gov/nohss/
Nutritional status, in infants and children
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/pednss.htm.
Alcohol-related health data:
http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/databases/qf.htm.
Others to be added.
>5. Higher ecological levels provide context that moderates individual
behavior. As stated by Wilcox, 2003, "...community-level contextual effects
can impact directly both group and individual-level behavior (e.g. main
effects), and they can also condition the effects of individual-level factors on
individual behaviors (e.g. moderating effects)."
Wilcox, P. (2003). An ecological approach to understanding youth smoking
trajectories: Problems and prospects. Addiction, 98 (Suppl 1), 57-77.
[quotation from p. 57]
>6. Environmental effects through, or independent of, behavioral effects
on health outcomes. E.g., Acevedo-Garcia, Lochner, et al., 2003; Chan &
Austin, 2003; Molnar, Buka, et al., 2003. We covered these relationships in the
previous two chapters, but revisit them here from the standpoint of selecting
levels for intervention. Although their causal arrows approach health through
individual behavior, Simons-Morton, et al., 1995, recognize "the influence of
environmental factors on health behavior and on health itself (e.g., air
pollution)..." (p. 155).
Acevedo-Garcia, D., Lochner, K. A., Osypuk, T. L., & Subramanian, S. V.
(2003). Future directions in residential segregation and health research: a
multilevel approach. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 215-21.
Chan, B. T., & Austin, P. C. (2003). Patient, physician, and community
factors affecting referrals to specialists in Ontario, Canada: a
population-based, multi-level modelling approach.
Medical Care, 41, 500-11.
Molnar B. E., Buka, S. L., Brennan, R. T., Holton, J. K., & Earls, F. (2003).
A multilevel study of neighborhoods and parent-to-child physical aggression:
results from the project on human development in Chicago neighborhoods. Child
Maltreatment, 8, 84-97.
Figure 5-3. Problem theory seeks to identify
the causes or etiologies of certain problems or effects. Causal theory
explains the causal relationship or mechanism by which the "determinant" causes
the effect. Action theory posits an expectation of change in one or more
causes that will follow from the intervention or program. It serves planning by specifying the presumed link
between what we can do by way of interventions and what we hope to achieve as
outcomes. This link is often expressed as a complex “logic model” showing the
pathways of influence set in motion by one or more interventions in a program.
Box 5-1.
>7. The weak link between science and its appropriate application "has
much to do with the variability of the targets--the populations and their
circumstances. These circumstances include the particular population's health
needs and resources that biomedical scientists and epidemiologists would have us
analyze. They also include their cultural traditions that anthropologists would
have us understand, their socioeconomic conditions that sociologists and
economists would have us appreciate, and the contingencies of their behavior
that psychologists would have us consider" (Green, 2001, Foreword, p. xiii).
Green, L. W. (2001). Foreword. In S. Sussman (Ed.). Handbook of program
development for health behavior research and practice (pp. xiii-xiv).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Seidel, Robert J.; Perencevich,
Kathleen C.; Kett, Allyson L. From
Principles of Learning to Strategies for Instruction. NY: Springer,
2005.
>8. Early delineation of intermediate variable model in public service and
social action programs. Suchman, 1967, p. 173. Though less plentiful than
mortality data,
state-level data on intermediate variables such as behavioral risk factors or
environmental conditions, are widely available on websites.
Suchman, E. A. (1967). Evaluative research: Principles and practice in
public service and social action programs. New York: Russell Sage
Foundation.
State data on cancer-related behaviors:
http://statecancerprofiles.cancer.gov/cgi-bin/risk/risk.pl?03&0&1&1&1
State BRFSS profiles of behavior, rates and trends since 1995 or
earlier for some of the same cancer-related behaviors and 20 other
health-related behaviors:
http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/#interactive
Oral health behaviors, services, and environments (fluoridation):
http://www.cdc.gov/nohss/.
>9. Pooling information about prior interventions. D'Onofrio, 2001, p.
158. For a spirited and passionate plea and a compelling case for more reliance
on replication of model programs and less dependence on the plodding pace of
randomized trials to educe "best practices," see Schorr, 1997, esp. her
"elements of successful replication" (pp. 60-4).
Schorr, L. B. (1997). Common purpose: Strengthening families and
neighborhoods to rebuild America. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday.
>10. Sources of information for pooling of prior interventions.
D’Onofrio, 2001, pp. 177-93.
D'Onofrio, C. N. (2001). Pooling information about prior interventions: A new
program planning tool. In S. Sussman (Ed.). Handbook of program development
for health behavior research and practice (pp. 158-203). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
>11. Existing Community Programs and Policies Matrix in PATCH. CDC,
2001, Chap. 4, & Chap. 5, Table 2 (full text downloadable from
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/patch/00binaries/PATCHCh5.pdf.
>12. Research-Tested Intervention Programs
guidelines for choosing and adapting from prior interventions. For examples
of model programs in nutrition, physical activity, tobacco control, sun
exposure, and various cancer screening interventions, go to
http://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/rtips/. For guidelines on adaptation of
these or other prior interventions, go to
http://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/rtips/adaptation_guidelines.pdf. The
programs and interventions recommended for replication and adaptation are scored
on their “dissemination capability” (replicability, adaptability), cultural
appropriateness for each of several ethnic groups, age appropriateness for each
broad age category, gender appropriateness, integrity, and utility. The program
descriptions on the website also indicate the appropriateness for each of
several settings, the intended audience, and required resources. The published
references on which the scoring and description of the programs are based are
also listed. For example, the Commit to Quit program for smoking cessation by
women, based on intensive physical activity, is now in a second generation of
trials to evaluate the effectiveness of moderate physical activity (see Marcus,
Lewis, et al., 2003).
Marcus, B. H., Lewis, B. A., King, T. K., Albrecht, A. E., Hogan, J., Bock,
B., Parisi, A. F., & Abrams, D. B. (2003). Rationale, design, and baseline
data for Commit to Quit II: An evaluation of the efficacy of
moderate-intensity physical activity as an aid to smoking cessation in women.
Preventive Medicine, 36, 479-92.
>13. Sussman’s Six-Step Program Development Chain
Model. Sussman, 2001.
Sussman, S. (Ed.). (2001). Handbook of program development
for health behavior research and practice (pp. 158-203). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
>14. Mediators as causal, intermediate variables
between interventions and behavior change. Simons-Morton, Greene, &
Gottlieb, 1995, p. 170.
>15. Mediator variable as conditioning the effect
of a causal variable. Sussman & Sussman, 2001, p. 81.
>16. Moderator variables as independent
variables that enhance or suppress the effect of other variables. Sussman &
Sussman, 2001, p. 81. For more examples of the simple relationships shown in
Figure 5-4, see Donaldson, 2001, pp. 473-93.
Donaldson, S. I. (2001). Mediator and moderator
analysis in program development. In S. Sussman (Ed.). Handbook of
program development for health behavior research and practice (pp. 470-96). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
"Best practices"
>17. Systematic reviews and guidelines for "best practices" from the Task
Force on Community Preventive Services.
For the continuously updated reviews, go to
www.thecommunityguide.org. For the background and methods, see Hopkins &
Fielding, 2001; Task Force on
Community Preventive Services, 2000; and specific reviews, e.g., Norris & Isham,
2002; Ramsey & Brownson, 2002.
Hopkins, D. P., & Fielding, J. E. (Eds.). (2001). The Guide to Community
Preventive Services: Tobacco Use Prevention and Control, Reviews,
recommendations, and expert commentary. American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 20 (Suppl. 2S), 1-88.
Norris, S. L., & Isham, G. J. (Eds.). (2002). The Guide to Community
Preventive Services: Reducing the burden of diabetes. American Journal of
Preventive Medicine, 22 (Suppl. 4S), 1-66.
Ramsey, L. T., & Brownson, R. C. (Eds.) (2002). Increasing physical
activity: Recommendations from the Task Force on Community Preventive
Services, reviews of evidence, and expert commentary. American Journal of
Preventive Medicine, 22 (Suppl. 4S), 67-108.
Task Force on Community Preventive Services.
(2000). Introducing the Guide to Community Preventive Services:
Methods, first recommendations and expert commentary. American Journal of
Preventive Medicine, 18 (Suppl. 1S), 1-142.
>18. Other sources of “Best Practices” based on systematic reviews of
multiple studies. Atkins, Best, & Shapiro, 2001; Center for
Substance Abuse Prevention, 2002; Fiori, Bailey, et al.,
2000; International Union for Health Promotion & Education, 1999;
Atkins, D., Best, D., & Shapiro, E. N. (Eds.). (2001). The Third U.S.
Preventive Services Task Force: Background, methods, and first
recommendations. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20 (Suppl.
3S), 1-108.
Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (2002). A practitioner's guide to
science-based interventions: A handbook of promising, effective, and model
programs. Washington, DC: CSAP, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
http://204.215.192.214/igto/images/HB.pdf and
http://www.modelprograms.samhsa.gov/.
Fiore, M. C., Bailey, W. C., Cohen, S. J., et. al. (2000). Treating
tobacco use and dependence: Quick reference guide for clinicians.
Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health
Service. October 2000.
Ikeda, R., & Dodge, K. A. (Eds.). (2001). Youth violence prevention: The
Science of moving research to practice. American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 20 (Suppl. 1S), 1-71.
>19. Sussman’s step 2, pooling and creating plausible intervention
activities. Sussman, pp. 17-18, quotation from p. 13. See also Chapters 7
and 8: D’Onofrio, 2001; and Niego & Peterson, 2001.
Niego, S., & Peterson, J. (2001). The program archive on sexuality, health,
and adolescence (PASHA): A study of activity warehousing. In Sussman, S.
(Ed.). Handbook of program development for health behavior research and
practice, pp. 210-36. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
>20. Screening pooled experiences to identify the ones with greatest
perceived efficacy and appropriateness. Sussman, pp. 18-19, quotation from
p. 13; see Chapter 9 for description and classification of methods, Ayala &
Elder, 2001; and chapters 10-12 for case examples: Sussman, Lichtman, & Dent,
2001; Nezami, Davison, & Hoffman, 2001; Dent, Lichtman, & Sussman, 2001. See
also Brieger, Nwankwo, et al., 1996.
Ayala, G. X., & Elder, J. P. (2001). Verbal methods in perceived efficacy
work. In Sussman, S. (Ed.). Handbook of program development for health
behavior research and practice, pp.239-63. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
*Brieger, W. R., Nwankwo, "E., Ezike, V. I., Sexton, J. D., Breman, J. G.,
Parker, K. A., Ekanem, Ol J., & Robinson, T. (1996). Social and behavioral
baseline for guiding implementation of an efficacy trial of insecticide
impregnated bed nets for malaria control at Nsukka, Nigeria. International
Quarterly of Community Health Education, 16, 47-61.
Sussman, S. (Ed.). Handbook of program development
for health behavior research and practice (pp. 158-203). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
>21. Concept
evaluation and “product-market fit” approaches of communications research and
social marketing.
Kotler & Roberto, 1989, pp.
28-30; see also pp. 285-294 for a case study of Project LEAN, a national
nutrition program.
Kotler, P., & Roberto, E. L. (1989). Social marketing: Strategies for
changing public behavior. New York: The Free Press.
>22. Definition of
perceived efficacy.
Ayala and Elder, 2001, p.
240, citing Hinkle, Fox-Cardamone, et al., 1996.
Hinkle, S., Fox-Cardamone, L., Haseleu, J. A., Brown, R., & Irwin, L. M.
(1996). Grass roots political action as an intergroup phenomenon. Journal
of Social Issues, 52, 39-51.
>23. Best experiences of states or communities based on comparisons of
outcomes, as a basis of recommending components of a comprehensive program.
Pechacek, Starr, Judd, Selin, Fishman, et al., 1999. For the resulting
(and largely disappointing) allocation of tobacco settlement funds by states
to their tobacco control programs, see Albuquerque, Pechacek, & Kelly, 2001.
For the annual payments to each state under the tobacco settlement, go to
National Association of Attorneys General. Annual Payments to Each State.
http://www..naag.org.
Albuquerque, M., Pechacek, T. F., Kelly, A. (2001). Investment in
tobacco control: State highlights--2001. Atlanta: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on
Smoking and Health. Full text online at
http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco.
Pechacek, T. F., Starr, G. B., Judd, B. T., Selin, H. J., Fishman, J. A.,
et a. (1999). Best practices for comprehensive tobacco control programs,
August 1999. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic
Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health. Full
text online at http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco.
[Note that the use of the term "Best Practices" here is as we have used the
term "best experiences".]
>24. "Plausibility criteria" to apply to "best experiences" from prior
or concurrent programs that have not been formally tested with controlled
experimental trials: Cameron, Jolin, Walker, McDermott, & Gough, 2001.
Plausible practices are also referred to elsewhere as "promising practices"
(e.g., Lambert, Donahue, Mitchell, & Strauss, 2003; available online at
www.samhsa.gov).
Cameron, R., Jolin, M. A., Walker, R., McDermott, N., & Gough, M. (2001).
Linking science and practice: Toward a system for enabling communities to
adopt best practices for chronic disease prevention. Health Promotion
Practice 2, 35-42.
Lambert, D., Donahue, A., Mitchell, M., & Strauss, R. (2003). Rural
mental health outreach: Promising practices in rural areas. Rockville, MD:
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services.
>25. Example of retracing the diagnostic
data and logic model in framing interventions for a program.
Ramey, et al., 2003. See also the
procedures for preparing diagnostic data for presentation to community groups,
in the PATCH Guide for the Local Coordinator, 2003, pp. CG3-35ff.
*Ramey, S. L., Shelley, M. C., Welk, G. J., & Franke, W. D. (2003).
Cardiovascular disease risk reduction efforts among law enforcement officers:
An application of the PRECEDE-PROCEED planning model. Evidence-Based
Preventive Medicine, 1(1): in press.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1996, Updated 2003).
Planned Approach to Community Health: Guide for the Local Coordinator.
Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease
Prevention and Health Promotion. (http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/patch/index.htm
accessed Nov 26, 2003).
>26. Procedures for mapping theory to interventions required for
coverage of gaps in the predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors
have been outlined in five detailed steps in a textbook by Bartholomew,
Parcel, Kok, & Gottlieb, 2001.
Bartholomew, L. K, Parcel, G. S., Kok, G., &
Gottlieb, N. H. (2001). Intervention mapping: Designing theory- and
evidence-based health promotion programs. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield
Publishing Co. (now McGraw-Hill). See website:
http://www.interventionmapping.unimaas.nl/ with bibliography of other
published applications of this model.
>27. The RE-AIM evaluation framework (see
Glasgow, Vogt, & Boles, 1999;
http://www.re-aim.org/a99-gr-ajph.html) which stands for
consideration of five elements: reach into the target population, efficacy
or effectiveness of an intervention outcome, adoption of
interventions by settings or communities, implementing the intervention
program, and maintenance of behavior change or change programs. See
also:
http://www.pitt.edu/~super1/lecture/lec6851/index.htm.
Glasgow, R. E., Vogt, T. M., &
Boles, S. M. (1999) Evaluating the public health impact of health promotion
interventions: The RE-AIM framework. American Journal of Public Health,
89, 1323-7. Full text at
http://www.re-aim.org/a99-gr-ajph.html.
>28.
Quantitative approach to
effecting outcomes.
E.g., Resnicow et al.,
1992, specifically altered the intensity and exposure time of students to the
"Know Your Body" program, which was based on the Precede Model and Social
Learning Theory. They showed that "...program
effects for several outcome variables were linearly related to level of
student exposure to the curriculum, suggesting a dose-response effect" (p.
463). Similarly, programs that achieve a greater reach, such as self-help
"cold-turkey" smoking cessation programs through the mass media, even if they
are less effective than the more intensive alternative such as behavioral
counseling, can achieve a much greater population effect (Shiffman, Mason, &
Henningfield, 1998, p. 337; see also Table 7-1 in previous edition of this
text, Green & Kreuter, 1999b, p. 223).
Resnicow, K.,
Cohn, L., Reinhardt, J., Cross, D., Futterman, R., Kirschner, E., Wynder, E.
L., & Allegrante, J. P. (1992). A three-year evaluation of the Know Your Body
program in inner-city schoolchildren. Health Education Quarterly, 19,
463-80.
Shiffman, S.,
Mason, K. M., & Henningfield, J. E. (1998). Tobacco dependence treatments:
Review and prospectus. Annual Review of Public Health, 19, 335-58.
>29.
Innovation gains in cost
per unit of delivery without loss of effectiveness through use of indigenous
personnel whose familiarity and identity with the clients compensate for their
technical qualifications
(e.g., Green, 1975;
1979). Among the classic studies in this vein, Cuskey & Premkuman (1973)
demonstrated that a drug treatment center serving about 1,000 addicts could
save up to $100,000 annually with ex-addict counselors in place of
professional counselors with graduate-level training. Fisher (1974; 1975) took this
logic a step further, experimentally demonstrating that unpaid patients of a
family planning clinic, given postcards to distribute to their friends achieve
recruitment rates at approximately one-third the cost per new appointment in
comparison with the next most cost-effective method. Fletcher (1973; Fletcher, Appel, & Bourgois, 1974) demonstrated the cost-effectiveness of a clerk in the
emergency room assigned to call and remind patients of their return
appointments, thereby reducing broken appointments. Whether this increased
continuity of care improved long-term quality of care, however, depended on
other interventions (Fletcher, Appel, & Bourgois, 1975). Examples of more
recent work on the use of indigenous personnel to innovate in health
interventions and programs include Altpeter, Earp, Bishop, & eng, 1999; Eng,
Parker, & Harlan, 1997; Green, Wang, & Ephross, 1976; Struthers, Hodge, De
Cora, & Geishirt-Cantrell, 2003.
Altpeter, M., Earp, J., Bishop, C., & Eng, E.(1999). Lay health advisor activity
levels: Definitions from the field. Health Education & Behavior, 26,
495-512.
Cuskey, W. R., & Premkumar, T. (1973). A differential counselor role model
for the treatment of drug addicts. Health Services Reports, 88, 663-8.
Eng, E., Parker, E. A., & Harlan, C. (Eds.). (1997). Lay health advisors: A
critical link to community capacity building (Special issue). Health
Education & Behavior, 24, 407-510.
Fisher, A. A. (1974). The characteristics of family planning opinion
leaders and their influence on the contraceptive behavior of others.
Doctor of Science dissertation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University School of
Public Health.
Fisher, A. A. (1975). The measurement and utility of the opinion
leadership concept for family planning programs. Health Education
Monographs, 3, 168-80. [Click on author for abstract]
Fletcher, S. W. (1973). A study of effectiveness of a follow-up clerk in
an emergency room. Master of Science thesis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University, School of Public Health.
Fletcher, S. W.,
Appel, F. A., & Bourgeois, M. (1974). Improving
emergency-room patient follow-up in a metropolitan teaching hospital. Effect
of a follow-up check. New England Journal of Medicine, 291, 385-8.
Fletcher, S. W., Appel, F. A., &
Bourgeois, M. (1975). Management of
hypertension. Effect of improving patient compliance for follow-up care.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 233, 242-4.
Green, L. W. (1975). Diffusion and adoption of innovations related to
cardiovascular risk behavior in the public. In A. Enelow & J. B. Henderson
(Eds.). Applying behavioral sciences to cardiovascular risk. New York:
American Heart Association.
Green, L. W. (1979). Health promotion policy and the placement of
responsibility for personal health care. Family and Community Health,
2, 51-64.
Green, L. W., Wang,
V. L., & Ephross, P. (1974). A three-year longitudinal study of the
effectiveness of nutrition aides on rural poor homemakers. American Journal
of Public Health 64, 722-4.
Struthers, R., Hodge, F. S., De Cora, L., & Geishirt-Cantrell, B. (2003).
The experience of native peer facilitators in the campaign against type 2
diabetes. Journal of Rural Health, 19, 174-80.
>30. Tailoring as a way to achieve the effectiveness of
personalized, culturally appropriate communications while also gaining the
reach and economies of scale of mass media, Caburnay, Kreuter, & Donlin,
2001; Kreuter, Lukwago, et al., 2003. A classic study that combined the use of
an indigenous aide with a standardized tape recorded message, believed to be
the first truly randomized clinical trial in health education, was Roberts,
Mico, & Clark, 1963. Kreuter, Oswald, et al.
(2000) note the prospect that tailored interventions will gradually lose their
edge in controlled trials comparing them with other approaches developed by
methods outlined in this and the foregoing chapter: “…if non-tailored
materials increasingly address important constructs from theories
of health behavior change, there will be less and less of a
difference between these materials and materials developed via
behavioral construct tailoring” (p. 314).
Caburnay, C. A., Kreuter, M. W., Donlin, M. J. (2001). Disseminating
effective health promotion programs from prevention research to community
organizations. Journal of Public Health Management & Practice, 7, 81-9.
Kreuter, M. W., Lukwago, S. N., Bucholtz, R. D., Clark, E. M., &
Sanders-Thompson, V. (2003). Achieving cultural appropriateness in health
promotion programs: targeted and tailored approaches. Health Education &
Behavior, 30, 133-46.
Kreuter, M. W., Oswald, D. L., Bull, F. C., & Clark, E. M. (2000). Are
tailored health education materials always more effective than non-tailored
materials? Health Education Research, 15, 305-15.
Kreuter, M. W., Caburnay, C. A., Chen,
J. J., & Donlin, M. J. (2004). Effectiveness of individually tailored
calendars in promoting childhood immunization in urban public health
centers. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 1, XX-XX (in press).Roberts, B. J.,
Mico, P. R., & Clark, E. W. (1963). An experimental study
of two approaches to communication. American Journal of Public Health, 53,
1361-81.
>31. Necessity of professional
discretion and adaptation at the point of implementation,
Ottoson & Green, 1997. A more recent application
of PRECEDE-PROCEED in the analysis of factors limiting the effective
implementation of Information Technology systems and programs is provided by
Kukafka, Johnson, Linfante, & Allegrante, 2003.
*Kukafka, R., Johnson, S. B., Linfante, A., & Allegrante, J. P. (2003).
Grounding a new information technology implementation framework in behavioral
science: A systematic analysis of the literature on IT use. Journal of
Biomedical Information, 36, 218-27.
*Ottoson J. M. and L. W. Green (1987). Reconciling concept and context:
Theory of implementation, In W. B. Ward and M. H. Becker (Eds). Advances in
Health Education and Promotion, vol. 2, pp. 353-382.Greenwich, CT: JAI
Press,.
>32. Example of pretesting as final
step in formative evaluation, first step in process evaluation,
Burhansstipanov, Krebs, et al., 2003, quotation from p. 29; other examples
within Precede-Proceed planning applications, Contento, Kell, et al., 1992;
Dignan, Sharp, et al., 1995.
Burhansstipanov, L., Krebs, L. U., Bradley, A., Gamito, E., Osborn, K.,
Dignan, M. B., & Kaur, J. S. (2003). Lessons learned while developing
"Clinical Trials Education for Native Americans" curriculum. Cancer Control,
10 (5 Suppl), 29-36.
*Contento,
I. R., Kell, D.G., Keiley, M. K., & Corcoran, R.D. (1992). A formative
evaluation of the American Cancer Society Changing the Course nutrition
education curriculum. Journal of School Health 62, 411-16.
*Dignan,
M., Sharp, P., Blinson, K., Michielutte, R., Konen, J., Bell, R., & Lane, C.
(1995). Development of a cervical cancer education program for native American
women in North Carolina. Journal of Cancer Education, 9, 235-42.
>33. Pretesting of
measurement instruments,
e.g., Beaman, Reyes-Frausto,
& Garcia-Pena, 2003. Examples within the context of Precede-Proceed applications
include
Black,
Stein, & Loveland-Cherry, 2001; Burglehaus, Smith, et al., 1997; Grisé,
Gauthier-Gagnon, & Martineau, 1993; Han, Baumann, & Cimprich, 1996; Hiddink,
Hautvast, et al., 1999.
Beaman, P. E., Reyes-Frausto, S., & Garcia-Pena C. (2003). Validation of the
Health Perceptions Questionnaire for an older Mexican population.
Psychological Reports, 92 (3 Pt 1), 723-34.
*Black,
M. E. A., Stein, K. F., Loveland-Cherry, C. J. (2001). Older women and
mammography screening behavior: Do possible selves contribute? Health
Education and Behavior, 28, 200-16.
*Burglehaus, M. J., Smith, L. A., Sheps, S. B., & Green, L. W. (1997).
Physicians and breastfeeding: Beliefs, knowledge, self-efficacy and counselling
practices. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 88 (6): 383-387.
*Grisé,
M-C. L., Gauthier-Gagnon,
C.,
& Martineau, G. G. (1993). Prosthetic profile of people with lower extremity
amputation: Conception and design of a follow-up questionnaire. Archives of
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 74, 862-70.
*Han, Y., Baumann, L. C., &
Cimprich, B. (1996). Factors influencing registered nurses teaching breast
self-examination to female clients. Cancer Nursing, 19, 197-203.
*Hiddink,
G. J., Hautvast, J. G. A. J., van Woerkum, C. M. J., van’t Hot, M. A., & Fieren,
C. J. (1999). Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of nutrition guidance
by primary care physicians. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 53 (Suppl.
2), S35-S43.
>34. The cart
before the horse in considering resources last? As co-authors, we have
debated the relative merits of putting so much into the developmental work
represented by this and the preceding chapters before giving formal attention to
the resources that will pull this program cart of proposed interventions. One of
us leaned toward putting the administrative and resource assessment first, the
other toward sticking with the creation of the "best" (not to say ideal) program
proposal, and letting it sell itself to those who might allocate resources to
it. We come to no right or wrong answers, just a recognition of the trade-offs,
the pros and cons of either approach. Such debate has begun to emerge within
societal decisions on the allocation of medical care resources, and how much
these should be guided by or even dictated by evidence-based "best practices"
(e.g., Nunes, 2003). Mooney (2002) also emphasizes the ultimate need, in the
inevitable absence of some certainty about the evidence-based practices, "...to
exercise value judgments...also a word of caution on the dangers of
over-reliance on waiting for perfect evidence"
(p. 65)
Nunes, R. (2003). Evidence-based medicine: a new tool for resource
allocation? Medical and Health Care Philosophy, 6, 297-301.
Hutubessy, R. C., Baltussen, R. M., Torres-Edejer, T. T., & Evans, D. B.
(2002). Generalised cost-effectiveness analysis: an aid to decision making in
health. Applied Health Economics and Health Policy, 1, 89-95.
Mooney, G. (2002). Priority setting in mental health services. Applied
Health Economics & Health Policy, 1, 65-74.
>35. For this and the following steps in
Administrative and Policy Diagnosis and Analysis, see the module in the
interactive "EMPOWER" (Expert Methods of Planning and Organizing Within
Everyone's Reach) CD-ROM program and manual
for fill-in blanks and checklists, and a summary report of each, for assessing
existing resources (p. 68), budget development (pp. 68-71), development of a
Gantt Chart (pp. 71-2), assessment of staff commitment and attitudes (pp. 72-4),
assessment of policy and organizational factors (pp. 74-5), and assessment of
political factors (pp. 76-7). A sample “Summary Report” is shown on p. 78 of the
manual (Gold, Green, & Kreuter, 1998).
Gold, R., Green, L. W., & Kreuter, M. W. (1998). EMPOWER: Enabling Methods of
Planning and Organizing Within Everyone's Reach. Sudbury, MA: Jones and
Bartlett Publishing Co. [CD-ROM disk and manual, International Ver 2.25].
2>36. Software
programs for computer construction of Gantt charts and other tools for planning
the flow and cost of program activities are commercially available. For
specific applications of cost analyses in PRECEDE-PROCEED, see Bertera,
E. M. & Bertera, 1981; Cantor, Morisky, et al., 1985; Cote, Gregoire, et al.,
2003; Frauenknecht, Brylinsky, & Zimmer, 1998; Gold, Green, & Kreuter, 1998;
Green, Wang, & Ephross, 1974; Hatcher, Green, Levine, & flagle, 1986; Sayegh &
Green, 1976.
Bertera, E. M., & Bertera, R. L. (1981). The cost-effectiveness of telephone
vs. clinic counseling for hypertensive patients: A pilot study. American
Journal of Public Health, 71, 626-9.
Cantor, J. C., Morisky, D. E., Green, L. W., et al. (1985). Cost-effectiveness
of educational interventions to improve patient outcomes in blood pressure
control. Preventive Medicine, 14, 782-800.
Cote I, Gregoire JP, Moisan J, Chabot I, Lacroix G. (2003). A pharmacy-based
health promotion programme in hypertension: cost-benefit analysis.
Pharmacoeconomic, 21, 415-28.
*Frauenknecht, M., Brylinsky,
J. A.,
Zimmer, C.
G. (1998). “Healthy Athlete 2000”: Planning a health education initiative
using the PRECEDE model. Journal of Health Education, 29 (5):
312-318.
Gold, R., Green, L. W., & Kreuter, M. W. (1998). EMPOWER: Enabling Methods
of Planning and Organizing Within Everyone's Reach. Sudbury, MA: Jones and
Bartlett Publishing Co. [CD-ROM disk and manual, International Ver 2.25].
Green, L. W., Wang, V. L., & Ephross, P. (1974). A three-year longitudinal
study of the effectiveness of nutrition aides on rural poor homemakers.
American Journal of Public Health, 64, 722-4.
Hatcher, M. E.,. Green, L. W., Levine, D. M., & Flagle, C. E.
(1986). Validation of a decision model for triaging hypertensive patients to
alternate health education interventions. Social Science and Medicine 22,
813-19.
Sayegh, J., & Green, L. W. (1976). Family planning education: Program design,
training component and cost-effectiveness of a post-partum program in
Beirut.
International Journal of Health Education, 19 (suppl.), 1-20.
3>37. Personnel are usually the most expensive line item in health program
budgets, but personnel costs are also sensitive to technological, organizational,
and community capacity, e.g., Bolman & Deal, 1991; Boulton,
Malouin, et al., 2003; Miller, Bedney, et al., 2003; Pelletier, 2001; Potter,
Ley, et al., 2003; and to new challenges, e.g., Fitch, Raber, &
Imbro, 2003; Gewin, 2003.
Bolman, L. and Deal, T. (1991).
Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Boulton, M. L., Malouin, R. A., Hodge, K., & Robinson, L. (2003). Assessment
of the epidemiologic capacity in state and territorial health
departments--United States, 2001. MMWR Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Reports,
52, 1049-51.
Fitch, J. P., Raber, E., & Imbro, D. R. (2003). Technology challenges in
responding to biological or chemical attacks in the civilian sector. Science,
302, 1350-4.
Gewin V. (2003). With the United States on high alert over the possibility
of bioterror attacks, epidemiologists are in huge demand. Nature 423,
784--5.
Miller, R. L., Bedney, B. J., Guenther-Grey, C., & CITY Project Study Team.
(2003). Assessing organizational capacity to deliver HIV prevention services
collaboratively: Tales from the field. Health Education & Behavior, 30,
582-600.
Pelletier, K. R. (2001). A review and analysis of the clinical- and
cost-effectiveness studies of comprehensive health promotion and disease
management programs at the worksite: 1998-2000 update. American Journal of
Health Promotion, 16, 107-116.
Potter MA, Ley CE, Fertman CI, Eggleston MM, Duman S. (2003). Evaluating
workforce development: perspectives, processes, and lessons learned.
Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 9, 489-95.
>38. Preparing materials and pretesting them might have been done as
last step in the previous design and selection phase of interventions
development, or might be the first step in the implementation phase. Much media
evaluation in the selection phase tends to be done by checklists of desirable
generic qualities in any communication, rather than by formal pretesting or
evaluation against process, impact, or outcome objectives. Gilbert & Sawyer,
2000, p. 215, note "...a paucity of meaningful evaluation...a sad commentary,
particularly in the light of how frequently such materials are used today," so
they caution planners to view them critically, using the various checklists
(e.g., Martin & Stainbrook, 1986). In fairness to some of the producers and
vendors of such audiovisual materials, they typically offer catalogues of
multiple pamphlets, videotapes, etc. that provide variations on messages that
have been tested, in which the variations are designed to appeal to different
audiences by age and ethnicity, for example, based on well grounded theories and
previously evaluated generic models. Because such materials must be fresh and
contemporary, it is probably impractical to expect each variation to have had a
formal evaluation, but pretesting for a new setting and population for your
program then becomes even more essential.
Gilbert, G. and Sawyer, R. (2000). Health Education: Creating strategies
for school and community health. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Martin, C., & Stainbrook, G. L.
(1986). An analysis checklist for audiovisuals when used as educational
resources. Health Education, 17(4): 31-33.
4>39. Use of volunteer health workers. Examples within PRECEDE-PROCEED
applications include Adeyanju, 1987-88; Bertera, 1990b; DePue, Wells, et al.,
1987; Hall & Best, 1997; Lasater, Abrams, et al., 1984; Seiden & Blonna, 1983;
Watson, Horowitz, et al., 2001. Francisco, Paine, & Fawcett, 1993, count
"volunteers recruited" as one of eight key measures in their instrument to
monitor and evaluate community coalitions. Stiell, Nichol, et al., 2003, found
that "citizen CPR" produced good quality-of-life outcomes in out-of-hospital
cardiac arrest survivors.
Adeyanju, O. M. (1987-88). A community-based health education analysis of an
infectious disease control program in Nigeria. International Quarterly of
Community Health Education, 8, 263-79.
Bertera, R. L. (1990b). Planning and implementing health promotion in the
workplace: A case study of the Du Pont Company experience, Health Education
Quarterly, 17, 307-27.
DePue, J. D.,
Wells, B. L., Lasater, T. M., & Carleton, R. A. (1987). Training volunteers
to conduct heart health programs in churches. American Journal of
Preventive Medicine, 3, 51-57.
Francisco, V. T., Paine, A. L., & Fawcett, S. B. (1993). A methodology for
monitoring and evaluating community health coalitions. Health Education
Research 8, 403-16.
Hall,
N., & Best, J. A. (1997).
Health promotion practice and public health: Challenge for the 1990s.
Canadian Journal of Public Health, 88, 409-15.
Lasater, T., D. Abrams, L. Artz, L., et al. (1984). Lay volunteer delivery of
a community-based cardiovascular risk factor change program: The Pawtucket
experiment. In J. D. Matarazzo, S. M. Weiss, J. A. Herd, et al., (Eds.),
Behavioral health: A handbook of health enhancement and disease prevention.
New York: Wiley.
Seiden, T. M.,
& Blonna, R. (1983). A Profile of volunteers at the VD National Hotline.
Spring '83 Hotliner Spring (American Social Health Association,
VD National Hotline, Palo Alto, CA), p. 6.
Stiell I, Nichol G, Wells G, De Maio V, Nesbitt L, Blackburn J, Spaite D;
OPALS Study Group. (2003). Health-related quality of life is better for
cardiac arrest survivors who received citizen cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Circulation, 108, 1939-44.
Watson, M. R., Horowitz, A. M., Garcia, I., &
Canto, M. T. (2001).
A community participatory oral health promotion program in an inner-city
Latino community. Journal of Public Health Dentistry, 61, 34-41.
>40. Evaluations of lay health workers, most with application of
Precede-Proceed model: Bird, Otero-Sabogal, et al., 1996; Dignan,
Michielutte, Blinson, et al., 1996; Dignan, Michielutte, Wells, et al., 1998;
Dignan, Sharp, et al., 1995; Earp, Eng, et al., 2002; Eng, 1993; Harrison, Li,
et al., 2003; Kironde & Bajunirwe, 2002; Lam, McPhee, et al., 2003; Paskett,
Tatum, et al., 1999; Sharp, Dignan, et al., 1999.
Bird, J. A., Otero-Sabogal, R., Ha, N.-T., & McPhee, S. J. (1996).
Tailoring lay health worker interventions for diverse cultures: lessons
learned from Vietnamese and Latina communities. Health Education and
Behavior, 23 (Suppl.), S105-S122.
Dignan, M.,
Michielutte, R., Blinson, K., Wells, H. B., Case, L. D., Sharp, P., Davis, S.,
Konen, J., & McQuellon, R. P. (1996). Effectiveness of health education to
increase screening for cervical cancer among eastern-band Cherokee Indian
women in North Carolina. Journal of the National Cancer Institute,
88, 1670-76.
Dignan, M. B.,
Michielutte, R., Wells, H. B., Sharp, P., Blinson, K., Case, L. D., Bell, R.,
Konen, J., Davis, S., & McQuellon, R. P. (1998). Health education to increase
screening for cervical cancer among Lumbee Indian women in North Carolina. Health
Education Research, 13, 545-56.
Dignan, M., Sharp, P., Blinson, K., Michielutte, R.,
Konen, J., Bell, R., & Lane, C. (1995). Development of a cervical cancer
education program for native American women in North Carolina. Journal of
Cancer Education, 9, 235-42.
Earp, J. A., Eng, E., O'Malley, M. S., Altpeter, M.,
Rauscher, G., Mayne, L., Mathews, H. F., Lynch, K. S., & Qaqish, B. (2002).
Increasing use of mammography among older, rural African American women:
results from a community trial. American Journal of Public Health, 92,
646-54.
Eng, E. (1993). The Save our Sisters Project: A social network strategy for
reaching rural black women. Cancer, 72(3, Suppl.), 1071-77.
Harrison, R. L., Li, J., Pearce, K, & Wyman, T. (2003). The Community
Dental Facilitator Project: reducing barriers to dental care. Journal of
Public Health Dentistry, 63, 126-8.
Kironde, S., & Bajunirwe, F. (2002). Lay workers in directly observed
treatment (DOT) programmes for tuberculosis in high burden settings: Should
they be paid? A review of behavioural perspectives. African Health
Sciences, 2, 73-8.
Lam, T. K., McPhee, S. J., Mock, J., Wong, C., Doan,
H. T., Nguyen, T., Lai, K. Q., Ha-Iaconis, T., & Luong, T.-N. (2003).
Encouraging Vietnamese-American women to obtain Pap Tests through lay health
worker outreach and media education. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 18, 516-24.
Paskett, E. D., Tatum, C. M., D'Agostino, R. Jr.,
Rushing, J., Velez, R., Michielutte, R., & Dignan, M. (1999). Community-based
interventions to improve breast and cervical cancer screening: Results of the
Forsyth County Cancer Screening (FoCaS) Project. Cancer Epidemiology
Biomarkers & Prevention, 8, 453-59.
Sharp, P. C.,
Dignan, M. B., Blinson, K., Konen, J. C., McQuellon, R., Michielutte, R.,
Cummings, L., Hinojosa, L., & Ledford, V. (1998). Working with lay health
educators in a rural cancer-prevention program. American Journal of Health
Behavior, 22, 18-27.
5>41. Drawing on, or pooling, resources from other
organizations. We will delve more deeply into the issues of
interorganizational exchange, and the forming, maintaining, and management of
community coalitions in Chapter 6 on community applications of the
Precede-Proceed Model. For purposes here, we refer the reader to a few key
references on the transfer of resources among organizations: Berkowitz, 2001;
Braitwaite, Taylor, & Austin, 2000; Butterfoss & Kegler, 2002; Chavis, 2001;
Fawcett, Lewis, et al., 1997; Goodman & Wandersman, 1994; Kwait, Valente,
& Celentano, 2001; Stachenko, 1996; and some caveats on
coalitions as vehicles for community collaboration, Green, 2000; Green &
Kreuter, 2002; Hallfors, Cho, et al., 2002.
Berkowitz, B. (2001). Studying the outcomes of community-based coalitions.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 213-227.
Braithwaite, R. L., Taylor, S., & Austin, J. (2000). Building health
coalitions in the Black community. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Butterfoss, F. R., & Kegler, M. C.
(2002). Toward a comprehensive understanding of community coalitions: Moving
from practice to theory. In
DiClementi, R. J., Crosby, R.A., & Kegler, M.C. (Eds.). Emerging theories
in health promotion practice and research: Strategies for improving public
health. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 157-93.
Chavis, D. M. (2001).
The paradoxes and promise of community coalitions.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 309-20.
Fawcett, S.
B., Lewis, R. K., Paine-Andrews, A., Francisco, V. T., Richter, K. P.,
Williams, E. L., & Copple, B. (1997). Evaluating community coalitions for
prevention of substance abuse: The case of Project Freedom. Health
Education & Behavior, 24, 812-28
Foster-Fishman, P., Berkowitz, S., Lounsbury, D., Jacobson, S., & Allen, N.
(2001). Building collaborative capacity in community coalitions: A review and
integrative framework. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29,
241-257.
Goodman, R. M.,& Wandersman, A. (1994). FORCAST: A formative approach to
evaluating community coalitions and community-based initiatives. Journal of
Community Psychology [Special Issue], 6-25.
Green, L. W. (2000). In praise of partnerships: Caveats on coalitions.
Health Promotion Practice, 1, 64-65.
Green, L. W., & Kreuter, M. W. (2002). Fighting back, or fighting themselves?
Community coalitions against substance abuse and their use of best practices.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine 23, 303-6.
Hallfors, D., Cho, H., Livert, D., & Kadushin, C. (2002).
How are community
coalitions “Fighting Back” against substance abuse, and are they winning?
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 237-45.
Kwait, J., Valente, T. W., & Celentano, D. D. (2001). Interorganizational relationships among HIV/AIDS service organizations in
Baltimore: a network analysis. Journal of Urban Health, 78, 468-87.
Stachenko, S. (1996). The Canadian Heart Health Initiative: Dissemination
perspectives. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 87(Suppl. 2), S57-S59.
6>42. Threshold level of
spending, below which one should not expect a palpable effect of the program.
Green, 1977.
Green, L. W. (1977). Evaluation and measurement: Some dilemmas for health
education. American Journal of Public Health 67,155-61.
7>43. Few studies of the
threshold level in health programs. Bertera & Green, 1979; Chwalow, Green,
et al., 1978; Connell, Turner, & Mason, 1985; Green, Wang, & Ephross, 1974;
Holtgrave, 1998, especially chapter 14 on "Threshold Analysis of AIDS
Outreach and Intervention;" Risser, Hoffman, et al., 1985. The federal
Office on Smoking and Health estimated the threshold requirements for state
spending on tobacco control to obtain effects comparable to those of California
and Massachusetts (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1999a).
Bertera, R. & Green, L. W. (1979). Cost-Effectiveness of a home visiting
triage program for family planning in Turkey. American Journal of Public
Health 69, 950-3.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1999a).
Best Practices for Comprehensive Tobacco Control Programs - August 1999.
Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention
and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health.
*Chwalow, A. J., Green, L. W., Levine, D. M., & Deeds, S. G. (1978). Effects
of the multiplicity of interventions on the compliance of hypertensive
patients with medical regimens in an inner-city population. Preventive
Medicine 7, 51.
Connell, D. B., Turner, R. R., & Mason, E. F. (1985). Summary of findings of
the School Health Education Evaluation: Health promotion effectiveness,
implementation, and costs. Journal of School Health, 55, 316-21.
Green, L. W., Wang, V. L., & Ephross, P. (1974). A three-year longitudinal
study of the effectiveness of nutrition aides on rural poor homemakers.
American Journal of Public Health, 64, 722-4.
Hatcher, M. E., Green, L. W. Levine, D. M, & Flagle, C. E. (1986). Validation
of a decision model for triaging hypertensive patients to alternate health
education interventions. Social Science and Medicine, 22, 813-19.
Holtgrave, D. (1998). Handbook of Economic Evaluation of HIV Prevention
Programs. New York: Plenum Publishing Corp.
Risser, L. W., Hoffman, H. M., Bellah, G. G., & Green, L. W. (1985). A
cost-benefit analysis of preparticipation sports examinations of adolescent
athletes. Journal of School Health, 55, 270-3.
8>44. Point of diminishing returns in program
spending. Fielding, 1982a; Green, 1977; Wang, Ephross & Green, 1975.
Fielding, J. E. (1982). Effectiveness of employee health improvement programs.
Journal of Occupational Medicine, 24, 907-16.
Green, L. W. (1974). Toward cost-benefit evaluations of health education: Some
concepts, methods, and examples. Health Education Monographs, 2 (Suppl.
1), 34-64.
Green, L. W. (1977). Evaluation and measurement: Some dilemmas for health
education. American Journal of Public Health, 67,155-61.
Wang, V. L., Ephross, P., & Green, L. W. (1975). The point of diminishing
returns in nutrition education through home visits by aides: An evaluation of EFNEP. Health Education Monographs, 3, 70-88; also in J. Zapka
(Ed.). The SOPHE heritage collection of health education monographs,
vol. 3.. Oakland, CA: Third Party Publishing Co., pp. 155-73.
9>45. Factors
influencing implementation. Ottoson & Green, 1987. For specific case
analyses of implementation issues within PRECEDE-PROCEED applications, some of
which will be examined in Chapters 6-8, see for arthritis self-care programs,
Brunk & Goeppinger, 1990; for asthma, Fisher, Strunk, et al.,
1995; for cystic fibrosis, Bartholomew, Czyzewski, et al., 2000;
for environmental sustainability, Boothroyd, Green, et al., 1994;
for cardiovascular risk prevention programs, Bush, Downey, et al., 1987;
Bush, Zuckerman, et al., 1989; Elliott, Taylor, et al., 1998; Morisky, Levine,
et al., 1981;
Paradis, O’Loughlin, et al., 1995;
Taggart, Bush, et al., 1990;
Taylor, Elliott, & Riley, 1998;
Taylor, Elliott, Robinson, et al.,
1998; Ward, Levine, et al., 1982; for drug abuse prevention programs,
Lohrmann & Fors, 1986; MacDonald & Green, 2001; for HIV prevention,
Cain, Schyulze, & Preston, 2001; for staff
adoption of planning tools (EMPOWER software; Information Technology),
Chiasson & Lovato, 2000;
Kukafka, Johnson,
et al., 2003;
Lovato, Potvin, et al., 2003; Lehoux, Potvin, & Proulx, 1999; Lehoux, Proulx, et
al., 1997; Roulx, Potvin, et
al., 1999; for injury prevention, Cross, Hall, & Howatt, 2003;
Wortel, de Vries,
&
de Geus, 1995;
for organizational and behavioral change of practitioners in support of
clinical preventive services, Curry, 1998; Eriksen, Green, & Fultz, 1988;
Goodson, Gottlieb, & Radcliffe, 1999;
Laitakari, Miilunpalo, & Vuori,
1997; Lomas, 1993; Mahlock, Taylor,
et al., 1993; Mann & Putnam, 1989; Miilunpalo, Jukka, & Ilkka,
1995; Smith, Danis, & Helmick, 1998; Thompson, 1996; 1997; Thompson, Rivara, et
al., 2000; Thompson, Taplin, et al., 1995; for breast cancer mammography
screening, Dignan, Bahnson, et al., 1991; Dignan, Beal, et al., 1990;
Dignan, Sharp, et al., 1995; Eng, 1993; Mahlock, Taylor, et al.,
1993; Thompson, Taplin, Carter, et al., 1988; for cervical cancer screening,
Michielutte & Dignan, 1989;
for physical activity programs, Hopman-Rock, 2000: for worksite
programs, Bertera, 1990b; Gottlieb, Lovato, et al., 1992; Parkinson and
Associates, 1982; Pucci & Haglund, 1994; for campus health promotion
programs, J. R. Weiss, Wallerstein, & MacLean, 1995; for multi-factor
community health promotion, Green & Kreuter, 1992; Green & McAlister, 1984;
Hecker, 2000;
Swannell, Steele, et al., 1992;
Wickizer, Wagner, & Perrin, 1998; and
for various other applications, Brink, Simons-Morton, et al., 1988;
Ottoson, 1997.
*Bartholomew, L. K., Czyzewski, D. I., Swank, P. R., McCormick, L., & Parcel,
G. S. (2000). Maximizing the impact of the cystic fibrosis family education
program: Factors related to program diffusion. Family & Community Health,
22, 27-47.
*Bertera, R. L. (1990b). Planning and implementing health promotion in the
workplace: A case study of the Du Pont Company experience, Health Education
Quarterly, 17, 307-27.
*Boothroyd, P.,
Green, L. W., Hertzman, C., Lynam, J., McIntosh, J., Rees, W., Manson Singer,
S., Wackernagel, M., & Woollard, R. (1994). Tools for sustainability:
Iteration and implementation. Chap. 10 in C. Chu & R. Simpson (Eds.).
Ecological public health: From vision to practice. Toronto: Centre for
Health Promotion, University of Toronto, pp. 111-121.
*Brink, S. G.,
Simons-Morton, D., Parcel, G.,
& Tiernan, K.
(1988). Community
intervention handbooks for comprehensive health promotion programming,
Family and Community Health, 11, 28-35.
*Brunk, S. E. & Goeppinger, J. (1990). Process evaluation: Assessing
re-invention of community-based interventions. Evaluation and the Health
Professions, 13, 186-203.
*Bush, P. J.,
Downey, A. M., Frank, L. S., & Webber, L. S. (1987). Implementation of "Heart
Smart": Cardiovascular school health promotion program. Journal of
School Health, 57, 98-104.
*Bush, P. J., Zuckerman, A. E., Theiss, P. K., Peleg, E. O., & Smith, S. A.
(1989). Cardiovascular risk factor prevention in black school
children--2-year results of the Know Your Body Program. American Journal of
Epidemiology, 129, 466-82.
*Cain, R. E.,
Schyulze, R. W., &
Preston, D. B. (2001). Developing a partnership for HIV primary prevention for
men at high risk for HIV infection in rural communities. Promotion and
Education: International Journal of Health Promotion and Education, 8:
75-8.
*Chiasson, M.
W., & Lovato, C. Y. (2000). The health planning context and its effect on a
user’s perceptions of software usefulness. Canadian Journal of Public
Health, 91, 225-8.
*Cross, D., Hall, M.,
& Howat, P. (2003). Using theory to guide practice in children's pedestrian
safety education. American Journal of Health Education, 34 (5, Suppl.
Sept/Oct), S42-S47.
*Curry, S. J.
(1998).
Building effective strategies to decrease tobacco use in a health maintenance
organisation: Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound. Tobacco Control,
7 (Suppl), S21-3; discussion S24-5. [click on title for full text].
*Dignan, M.,
Bahnson, J., Sharp, P. Beal, P., Smith, M., & Michielutte, R. (1991).
Implementation of mass media community health education: The Forsyth County
Cervical Cancer Prevention Project. Health Education Research, 6,
259-66.
*Dignan, M. B., Beal, P. E.,
Michielutte, R., Sharp, P.
C., Daniels, L. A., & Young, L. D.. (1990). Development of a direct education
workshop for cervical cancer prevention in high risk women: the Forsyth County
project. Journal of Cancer Education, 5, 217-23.
*Dignan, M., Sharp, P.,
Blinson, K., Michielutte, R., Konen, J., Bell, R., & Lane, C. (1995). Development of a cervical cancer
education program for native American women in North Carolina. Journal of
Cancer Education, 9, 235-42.
*Downey, A. M., Butcher, A. H., Frank, G. C., Webber, L. S., Miner, M. H., &
Berenson, G. S. (1987). Development and implementation of a school health
promotion program for reduction of cardiovascular risk factors in children and
prevention of adult coronary heart disease: 'Heart Smart'. In B. Hetzel and
G. S. Berenson, (Eds.), Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood:
Epidemiology and prevention. Amsterdam, NY & Oxford: Elsevier Science
Publishers B.V., pp. 103-121.
*Downey, A. M., Frank, G. C., Webber, L. S.,
Harsha, D. W., Virgilio, S.J.,
Franklin, F.A.,
et al. (1987).
Implementation of "Heart Smart:" A cardiovascular school health
promotion program, Journal of School Health, 57, 98-104.
*Elliott, S.
J., Taylor, S. M., Cameron, R., & Schabas, R. (1998). Assessing public health
capacity to support community-based heart health promotion: The Canadian Heart
Health Initiative, Ontario Project (CHHIOP). Health Education Research,
13, 607-22.
*Eng, E. (1993). The Save our Sisters Project: A social network strategy for
reaching rural black women. Cancer, 72(3, Suppl.), 1071-77.
*Eriksen, M. P.,. Green, L. W., & Fultz, F. G. (1988). Principles of changing
health behavior. Cancer, 62, 1768-75.
*Fisher, E. B.,
Strunk, R. C., Sussman, L. K., Arfken, C., Sykes, R. K., Munor,
J. M., Haywood, S., Harrison, D., & Bascom, S. . (1995). Acceptability and
feasibility of a community approach to asthma management: The Neighborhood
Asthma Coalition (NAC). Journal of Asthma, 33, 367-83.
*Goodson, P., Gottlieb, N. H.,
Radcliffe, M. (1999). Put Prevention into
Practice: Evaluation of program initiation in nine Texas clinical sites.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 17, 73-78.
*Gottlieb, N. H.,
Lovato, C. Y., Weinstein, R., Green, L.W., & Eriksen, M. P. (1992). The implementation of a restrictive worksite smoking policy in a large
decentralized organization. Health Education Quarterly, 19, 77-100.
*Green, L.W., Kreuter, M.W. (1992).
CDC's Planned Approach to Community Health as an application of PRECEDE and an
inspiration for PROCEED. Journal of Health Education, 23,140-47.
*Green, L. W. &
McAlister, A. L. (1984). Macro-intervention to support health
behavior: Some theoretical perspectives and practical reflections. Health
Education Quarterly, 11, 323-39.
*Hecker, E. J.
(2000). Feria de Salud: Implementation and evaluation of a communitywide
health fair. Public Health Nursing, 17, 247-56.
*Hopman-Rock, M. (2000).
Towards implementing physical activity programmes: The health promotion
approach. Science and Sports, 15, 180-186.
*Kukafka, R., Johnson, S. B.,
Linfante, A., & Allegrante, J. P. (2003). Grounding a new information
technology implementation framework in behavioral science: A systematic
analysis of the literature on IT use. Journal of Biomedical Information,
36, 218-27.
*Laitakari. J,
Miilunpalo, S., & Vuori, I. (1997).
The process and methods of health counseling by primary health care personnel
in Finland: a national survey. Patient Education and Counseling, 30,
61-70.
*Lehoux, P., Potvin, L., Proulx, M. (1999). Linking users’ views with
utilization processes in the evaluation of interactive software. The
Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 14, 117-40.
*Lehoux, P., Proulx, M., Potvin, L., & Green, L. (1997). An evaluation in
Montreal of interactive software to support decisions in planning screening
mammography programs [abstract]. Annual Meeting of International Society of
Technology Assessment in Health Care, 13, 94.
*Lohrmann, D. K. & Fors, S. W. (1986). Can School-Based Educational Programs
Really be Expected to Solve the Adolescent Drug Abuse Problem? Journal of Drug Education, 16, 327-39.
*Lomas, J. (1993). Diffusion, dissemination, and implementation: Who should do
what? In K. S. Warren & F. Mosteller (Eds.). Doing more good than harm: The
evaluation of health care interventions (pp. 226-237). New York:
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 703. Also in: Lomas, J.
(1993). Diffusion, dissemination, and implementation: who should do what?
Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences,
703, 226-37.
*Lovato, C.,
Potvin, L., Lehoux, P., Proulx, M., Chiasson, M., Milligan, D., Tremblay, M.,
Gariepy, E, Dingwell, G., & Green, L. W. (2003). Implementation and use of
software designed for program planning: A case study. Promotion &
Education: International Journal of Health Promotion & Education, 10, in
press.
*MacDonald, M.
A., & Green, L. W. (2001).
Reconciling concept and context: The dilemma of implementation in school-based
health promotion. Health Education & Behavior, 28, 749-68.
*Mahloch, J., Taylor, V.,
Taplin, S., &
Urban, N. (1993). A breast
cancer screening educational intervention targeting medical office staff.
Health Education Research, 8, 567-79.
*Mann,
K.V., &
Putnam, R.W. (1989). Physicians' perceptions of their role in cardiovascular
risk reduction. Preventive Medicine, 18, 45-58.
*Michielutte, R.,
Dignan, M. B., Wells, H. B., Young, L. D., Jackson, D. S., &
Sharp, P. C. (1989). Development of a community cancer education program: The
Forsyth County, NC, Cervical Cancer Prevention Project. Public Health
Reports, 104, 542-51.
*Miilunpalo,
S.,
Jukka, L., & Ilkka, V.
(1995). Strengths and
weaknesses in health counseling in Finnish primary health care. Patient
Education and Counseling, 25, 317-28.
*Morisky, D. E., Levine, D. M. Wood, J. C., et al. (1981). Systems approach for
the planning, diagnosis, implementation and evaluation of community health
education approaches in the control of high blood pressure. Journal of
Operations Research, 50, 625-34.
*Ottoson, J. M. (1997). After the applause: Exploring multiple influences on
application following adult education programs. Adult Education Quarterly,
47, 92-107.
*Ottoson J. M. and L. W. Green (1987). Reconciling concept and context: Theory
of implementation, In W. B. Ward and M. H. Becker (Eds.). Advances in Health
Education and Promotion, vol. 2, pp. 353-382.Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
*Paradis, G., O’Loughlin J., Elliott, M.,
Masson, P., Renaud, L., Sacks-Silver,
G., & Lampron, G. (1995). Coeur en Santé St-Henri - A heart health promotion
programme in a low income, low education neighbourhood in Montreal, Canada:
Theoretical model and early field experience. Journal of Epidemiology and
Community Health, 49, 503-12.
*Parkinson, R. S. & Associates (Eds). (1982). Managing health promotion in
the workplace: Guidelines for implementation and evaluation. Palo Alto:
Mayfield.
|
